News

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder celebrates topping out of new chemistry and applied mathematics facility

Rachel Sauer — Thu, 24 Sep 2026 20:46:06 +0000

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder celebrates topping out of new chemistry and applied mathematics facility Rachel Sauer Thu, 09/24/2026 - 14:46

(Left to right) Irene Blair, dean of the Division of Natural Sciences; Joost de Gouw, chair of the Department of Chemistry; Braulio Baptista, partner at ZGF Architects; Mark Hoefer, chair of the Department of Applied Mathematics; Katherine Eggert, interim dean of the College of Arts and Sciences. (Photo: Patrick Campbell/�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder)

New facility will support research and teaching in fields including analytical spectroscopy, environmental chemistry, computational mathematics and the statistical sciences

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder on Wednesday, Sept. 23, marked a major milestone in the construction of its new Chemistry and Applied Mathematics (CHAP) facility, celebrating the topping out of the building with university leaders, project partners, faculty and staff.

The ceremony recognized completion of the building's structural frame and provided an opportunity to honor the many people helping bring the project from vision to reality.

"The progress we celebrate today reflects the dedication and collaboration of countless individuals who have helped advance this project," said �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Chancellor Justin Schwartz. "The Chemistry and Applied Math facility will be transformational in supporting the next generation of discoveries, learning opportunities and interdisciplinary partnerships at �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder."

Learn more in �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Today

New facility will support research and teaching in fields including analytical spectroscopy, environmental chemistry, computational mathematics and the statistical sciences.

Traditional

White

Student meteorology society named local chapter of the year

Rachel Sauer — Tue, 22 Sep 2026 21:42:42 +0000

Student meteorology society named local chapter of the year Rachel Sauer Tue, 09/22/2026 - 15:42

Members of the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder chapter of the American Meteorological Society on a tour of the NCAR Research Aviation Facility.

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder chapter of the American Meteorological Society recognized for cultivating lasting student networks and leading impactful community outreach

The �鶹��Ѱ�� chapter of the American Meteorological Society (CUBAMS) has been named local student chapter of the year by the national organization.

The honor recognizes the chapter “for cultivating lasting student networks, leading impactful community outreach and establishing a strong, visible presence throughout the American Meteorological Society.” It will be presented at the American Meteorological Society (AMS) annual meeting in Denver this January.

Members of the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder chapter of the American Meteorological Society on a tour of the NCAR Research Aviation Facility.

“This AMS recognition highlights the dedication of our chapter and the broader (atmospheric and oceanic sciences) community to creating an academically supportive, professionally engaged and collaborative environment,” says member Amanda Bowden, a fourth-year PhD candidate in the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences (ATOC). “It recognizes the efforts of our members to strengthen the atmospheric sciences community at �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder through professional development, education, outreach and service. It also demonstrates how our students and faculty contribute beyond the university by sharing their knowledge and giving back to the broader public community.”

CUBAMS was formed after ATOC began offering an undergraduate major in fall 2016, explains Andrew Winters, an associate professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences and CUBAMS faculty advisor. “A group of students came to me with interest in building one of these chapters as a way to help undergrads who are very much new to the program, to build community,” he says. “In 2021 we really initiated the chapter—students wrote a constitution; they got approved by national organization and got registered as a student organization at CU.”

Anna Hagberg, a senior majoring in applied mathematics and ATOC, says that when she joined CUBAMS, she had just changed her major to ATOC “and was looking for people that I could be friends with (and talk about the weather with). I was also curious about the possible career paths that existed within atmospheric and oceanic science.”

The student-led organization has organized events from tours of the NCAR Research Aviation Facility to eclipse viewing and a weather balloon launch, as well as tabling at AMS conferences.

Wade Julian, a senior ATOC major who also is pursuing an interdisciplinary climate science minor and a certificate in arctic studies, says that participating and serving as an officer in CUBAMS has been one of his most valuable �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder experiences.

“Through the chapter, I have developed a lot of leadership and organizational skills, especially through serving as an officer and helping plan events for our members,” Julian says. “I have also had opportunities to attend professional conferences, meet atmospheric scientists and learn about careers that I would not have been exposed to through my classes alone.

"These experiences have helped me become more confident about pursuing a career in atmospheric science and have given me a better idea of the areas of the field that I am interested in, particularly climate and arctic science.”

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about atmospheric and oceanic sciences? Show your support.

Members of the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder chapter of the American Meteorological Society at an eclipse viewing event.

Members of the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder chapter of the American Meteorological Society launching a weather balloon.

CUBAMS officers on a Flexible Array of Radars and Mesonets (FARMS) visit.

Students and faculty tabling for the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences at the annual American Meteorological Society conference.

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder chapter of the American Meteorological Society recognized for cultivating lasting student networks and leading impactful community outreach.

Traditional

White

All photos courtesy Anna Hagberg

Rebecca Machen awarded $2 million National Science Foundation grant

Rachel Sauer — Mon, 21 Sep 2026 16:37:15 +0000

Rebecca Machen awarded $2 million National Science Foundation grant Rachel Sauer Mon, 09/21/2026 - 10:37

Hope Kerrigan

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder mathematician earns competitive grant to fund scholarships and mentoring for academically talented, low-income students pursuing STEM degrees

Rebecca Machen, an assistant teaching professor in the �鶹��Ѱ�� Department of Mathematics, has been awarded a grant from the highly competitive National Science Foundation (NSF) program for Scholarships in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (S-STEM).

Machen, principal investigator on the award alongside co-principal investigators Tamara Sumner and Evy McUmber, will receive $2 million between January 2027 to December 2032 for scholarships that aim to support students facing financial barriers to completing STEM degrees.

Rebecca Machen is assistant teaching professor in the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Department of Mathematics.

Twenty-four students will receive scholarships averaging approximately $12,500 annually for up to five years. This support will also give recipients access to peer mentoring, cohort building, academic coaching, professional development and internships.

The program builds on the investigators’ previous �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder experience. Machen served as director of STEM instruction in the Student Academic Success Center (SASC), which has supported low-income students since the 1970s. McUmber is a chemistry faculty member in SASC and brings extensive experience working directly with its students, while Sumner has led NSF-funded initiatives and helped strengthen and elevate the project as it developed. Together, the team is building on SASC's longstanding academic and community-support model while adding a level of sustained financial assistance and a network of campus partners that had not previously been integrated at this scale.

This project's overarching goal is to increase STEM degree completion among high-achieving undergraduates with financial need, ensuring the number of STEM graduates can keep up with the ever-advancing demand in developing technologies. The project will be formally evaluated by an outside party using matched-comparison analyses of retention, time-to-degree and job or graduate-school placement, contributing to the broader knowledge base on what tangibly helps low-income students succeed in STEM.

"Financial need continues to be a significant barrier to accessing and completing higher education," Machen said. As fields like artificial intelligence, quantum science, robotics and biotechnology continue to grow, she wants talented students from all economic backgrounds to have the chance not just to earn degrees in these areas but to see themselves represented in the careers shaping the future. "This program gives students the financial, academic and professional support they need to pursue those opportunities," she added.

The National Science Foundation's S-STEM program specializes in increasing the number of academically talented, low-income students with demonstrated financial need who earn degrees in STEM fields. The program also aims to improve the education of future STEM workers and generate knowledge about the academic success, retention, transfer, graduation and career pathways of low-income students. This year, NSF is funding numerous S-STEM projects nationwide, including �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder's, as part of its Track 2 cohort.

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about mathematics? Show your support.

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder mathematician earns competitive grant to fund scholarships and mentoring for academically talented, low-income students pursuing STEM degrees.

Traditional

White

Top photo: Jeswin Thomas/Unsplash

Scientists get a clearer picture of phytoplankton sustaining ocean food webs

Rachel Sauer — Fri, 18 Sep 2026 19:19:38 +0000

Scientists get a clearer picture of phytoplankton sustaining ocean food webs Rachel Sauer Fri, 09/18/2026 - 13:19

Kaio Kish

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder researchers develop a tool that can model phytoplankton biomass extremes in the ocean in ways that conventional satellites often can’t

Phytoplankton, the tiny, single-celled organisms that live in oceans, are more important than some realize. They are the base of the marine food web and help countless other species in the oceans thrive and survive.

Satellite technology and its continuous advancements have given the world a better understanding of the oceans and the life within them, specifically phytoplankton. But gaps still remain in what satellites can show about the activity of phytoplankton.

Unfortunately, phytoplankton and the oceans they call home are suffering, says Nicole Lovenduski, a �鶹��Ѱ�� professor of atmospheric and oceanic sciences (ATOC) and director of the Institute of Arctic and Alpine Research (INSTAAR). “You can think of (phytoplankton) as the grasses of the terrestrial biosphere,” she says. “They’re the things that build the foundation that everything else eats.”

In a recently published study conducted in partnership between �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder and the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), Lovenduski and her research colleagues found that despite what can be seen through satellite imagery, a lot of phytoplankton is obscured—often by clouds or low sunlight.

A mixed phytoplankton community. (Image: Stephanie Anderson/University of Rhode Island/NASA)

The researchers set out to discover what the observational limitations were in detecting phytoplankton biomass extremes in the oceans, building a satellite emulator that mimics the same blind spots a real satellite would encounter: sea ice, clouds, low sun angles. This allowed them to compare what the model predicted to what the satellite actually saw, ultimately revealing the gaps between the two. By combining interdisciplinary expertise, they were able to find the holes in detecting these phytoplankton biomass extremes.

"Statistically, by definition, there have to be extremes in everything—you think about a normal distribution (referencing phytoplankton bloom events), the extremes are on the tail of that bell curve, so mathematically they must exist,” Lovenduski explains. “And I found maybe four papers on this, and that was it. Why isn’t anyone writing about this?... And then I had the a-ha moment: It's because no one can see them in the satellite data."

As Lovenduski explains, extremes are important for the ecosystem: “If there's a huge phytoplankton bloom, that's going to have ramifications for the whole ocean ecosystem in that region. Similarly, if blooms fail to occur, that's going to be devastating for the ecosystem.”

These high extremes refer to a higher-than-normal concentration of phytoplankton in one specific region or area. On the other hand, if a bloom is supposed to happen and it doesn’t—a low extreme—marine life in that region that rely on phytoplankton for their diet can be severely affected, which in turn causes a ripple effect across other species in the ocean.

Combining clouds, ocean and ice

To study these issues, Lovenduski worked with ATOC PhD graduates Genevieve Clow and Samuel Mogen, an INSTAAR postdoctoral scholar, as well as ATOC Professor Jennifer Kay and Michael Levy and Keith Lindsay of the NCAR Climate and Global Dynamics Laboratory. The researchers aimed to find a better way to visualize these mysterious single-celled organisms that do so much for our marine ecosystem.

To solve the problem of limited visualization of phytoplankton, the team built what they call a satellite emulator within an Earth system model—a tool that allows them to “see” the modeled ocean the same way a satellite does.

"It is an approach that they've used in atmospheric science before to simulate satellite observations of clouds, and we apply that approach to a completely different thing, which is the pigment chlorophyll in the ocean,” Lovenduski says. “Our ability to detect that from space turns out to be a really important limit on our ability to detect extremes.”

Chlorophyll, a green pigment that phytoplankton and plants use to absorb sunlight, plays a similar role in phytoplankton as it does in plants. It is why large phytoplankton clusters and algae appear green. Chlorophyll helps phytoplankton turn sunlight, water and carbon dioxide into energy while releasing oxygen.

However, because of the limitations caused by cloud coverage blocking satellite imaging of chlorophyll, Kay emphasizes that using field samples as well as satellite imagery is vital to a model: “You can learn so much from the assets that we have in space, and sometimes those assets, while providing an incomplete picture of things, can also provide the space-time perspective that's super important for understanding this change in variability.”

Kay also mentions that a combination of field sampling and the use of satellites are critical to understanding what's going on in the oceans, noting how her group often partners with Boulder-based NCAR scientists to validate Earth system models with data.

As a key part of the research, Clow developed a tool that ran model simulations on a computer. Clow flew a virtual satellite inside the model, sampling the modeled ocean similar to how a real satellite would see the ocean.

Conventional atmospheric satellites wait for reflected light to bounce off the ocean and come back up but, Lovenduski notes, so “if there's a cloud in the way and if the sun angle is really low, there's not enough radiation to come back to the satellite, so we made sure that we included that effect in the model. And if there's sea ice growing on the surface of the ocean, (the satellite) can't see the chlorophyll underneath, but the model still predicts what the chlorophyll is.”

A phytoplankton bloom off the coast of Iceland. (Image: NASA)

By being able to account for these discrepancies in the model, Clow says that the main takeaway from this research is that “our observations of phytoplankton are limited, and that we need to combine observations and models in order to gain a complete picture of what's happening with phytoplankton in the ocean."

One of the most significant findings in this research included the fact that globally, satellites can only detect about 10% of daily low extremes and 19% of daily high extremes. Kay explains that clouds “obscure what you can view in the ocean. It's hard to penetrate into it, and from space you're not going to get that kind of information.”

Clow’s idea for an Earth system model study arose from that issue: “Satellites can only see the surface of the ocean, but in some regions, phytoplankton tend to grow much deeper, and so what satellites can see at the surface isn't representative of what's happening throughout the water column,” Clow explains, adding that this is the main issue with being able to visualize the amount of phytoplankton in a given area.

The stressed oceans

Despite the technical advances represented in the model, the researchers express concerns about the state and health of Earth’s oceans.

“There are so many environmental stressors that are hitting the ocean all at once, so it's getting warmer, and that is in turn is causing the ocean to lose oxygen with time,” Lovenduski says. “That also is making it more difficult for nutrients that are below the surface to get up to the surface and fuel this biological productivity that's so important for the marine food web.

“In addition, the ocean is taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, which is great for mitigating global warming but actually causing the ocean to become acidic. So, the ecosystems of the ocean are experiencing simultaneous difficult stressors all at once. It doesn't paint a very nice picture."

Phytoplankton observability matters as a sign of what’s happening in our climate, the researchers say. Kay points out that fisheries and other marine-based industries rely on knowledge of extreme events happening in the world. “If we have a heat wave in the atmosphere, we’re kind of miserable,” she says. “So, it can affect life in the ocean as well.”

Kay notes that though Colorado is far from the ocean, residents here still experience similar effects: “I think we can start to expect warmer days and more heat waves and more demand on water resources. I think we all felt that pretty acutely in Colorado this past winter, having 80-degree days in March when we're supposed to have the peak snowpack.”

“Make the model look like reality”

The recently published paper is an important step in continuing research. Clow is beginning a post-doctoral research position at the Scripps Institute of Oceanography, where she’ll model the impact of fish on the carbon cycle.

Lovenduski’s group is applying the “make the model look like reality” idea to a fleet of ocean floats that “live forever, they don't ever run out of battery like the real world floats, but they also can do a profile every four hours instead of every 10 days.”

This, she says, will allow the team to, “improve the frequency of sampling, and then we can look at what an ideal float configuration in the real world looks like for the thing that you're interested in sampling.”

Kay is working with a newly launched satellite, called EarthCARE, to better understand the water cycle and how the energy budget and resources will be affected by measuring precipitation near the surface.

The researchers note that the experience of developing a tool to model the detectability of phytoplankton biomass extremes in the ocean, as especially the interdisciplinary approach to this work, is informing their further research.

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about atmospheric and oceanic sciences? Show your support.

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder researchers develop a tool that can model phytoplankton biomass extremes in the ocean in ways that conventional satellites often can’t.

Traditional

White

Top image: A green phytoplankton bloom in the Gulf of Finland. (Photo: NASA)

Students sending a text for help

Rachel Sauer — Thu, 17 Sep 2026 22:09:51 +0000

Students sending a text for help Rachel Sauer Thu, 09/17/2026 - 16:09

Tiffany Plate

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Assistant Professor Tamar Kodish is leveraging modern technology to break down barriers to mental health resources at community colleges

Mental health is a significant topic of concern on many college campuses these days. Recent estimates suggest that approximately one in three students at four-year colleges and universities experience mental health issues such as anxiety and depression.

At community colleges, however, that number could be as high as one in two students.

“Community college students tend to face a lot more contextual stressors,” says Tamar Kodish, assistant professor in the �鶹��Ѱ�� Department of Psychology and Neuroscience. “There are much higher rates of food insecurity and houselessness. And they are significantly more likely to come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds, or to be racial and ethnic minorities.”

Psychology and neuroscience Assistant Professor Tamar Kodish used a human-centered approach to design a text messaging strategy to encourage students to use free mental health resources. (Photo courtesy Tamar Kodish)

Through prior research, Kodish became interested in exploring different strategies to encourage community college students to access available mental health resources on campus. She began asking, “What can we do to try to improve engagement in mental health services for people who might be at risk of not getting care that they need?”

That question led to a research study, recently published in the journal JMIR Formative Research, examining how the right text messages, sent to students at the right time, could be key to ensuring valuable mental health resources reach the students who may need it most.

Taking a STAND for mental health

Kodish, who received her PhD in clinical psychology from UCLA, received funding for the pilot project through UCLA’s STAND ALACRITY Center, a research center under the UCLA Depression Grand Challenge (DGC). The Center’s aim is to improve the mental health care available to community college students through a new model called STAND. Center researchers are studying how to improve/optimize STAND through a research program at East Los Angeles College.

STAND—which is short for Screening and Treatment for Anxiety and Depression—is an adaptable, scalable system of care that includes screening, treatment and ongoing monitoring of mood and symptoms of depression and anxiety.

Students who choose to engage with STAND first answer different questions about their mental health through an online assessment; based on their responses, they’re triaged into one of three levels of treatment.

Students who have mild symptoms of depression and anxiety are given a self-guided, online wellness program, while those with moderate symptoms receive a digital mental health program, including peer-to-peer coaching support from certified STAND coaches.

Students with severe symptoms are eligible to get clinical therapy—sometimes with psychiatric support—that’s delivered remotely. DGC researchers are testing new approaches to allocating treatment by creating a data-driven algorithm that accounts not only for symptom severity but also for other social and structural factors, like food and housing security.

An example of a text message Kodish’s team developed—alongside community college students—to help identify the barriers and stigmas around receiving mental health care. Students would then receive tailored responses based on their selection. (Illustration courtesy of Tamar Kodish)

Research has shown that the STAND approach works. In a 2023 study, more than 500 UCLA students who engaged with one of the three levels of care showed measurable improvement in depression and anxiety scores.

Encouraging uptake, increasing engagement

Those 500 students, however, were just a portion of the 3,500-plus students who initially took the online screening.

“We found that only 14% of students who were eligible for STAND services actually got started with treatment, so we were losing tons of people along the way,” says Kodish. That led her and her colleagues to explore new ways of keeping people from falling off the continuum of care.

Kodish was also interested in seeing how this engagement might differ at a community college, since the previous study, like many others, was only conducted at a four-year university. "We don't know nearly as much about community college students,” says Kodish. “They're a super underrepresented, and super diverse, group.”

So Kodish headed to East Los Angeles College (ELAC)—where the STAND at ELAC program had been underway since 2022—armed with a new idea for reaching students where they are. “I got really interested in text messaging as a potential approach based on what I had seen in the literature, and from what I knew from talking to college students.”

She began by inviting students on campus to focus groups and asked open-ended questions about what they saw as barriers to engaging with the STAND resources. The goal was to find ways to communicate with students who either dropped off in the middle of taking the STAND screening or completed the screening but didn’t engage with the resources that were delivered to them.

A blueprint for eye-catching texts

“Overall, students were really enthusiastic about using text messaging,” says Kodish. “They felt like it was feasible, it was easy, it was convenient and it would fit into their lives.”

After the focus groups, she asked a subset of those students—19 in all—to help design the messages themselves. “They definitely wanted something that was multimedia,” says Kodish. “They said, ‘They can't be too long, they can't be too spammy, and they need to have imagery and videos to draw you in and differentiate them from other random messages.’”

Kodish’s team took their directives, drafted the look and content of the messages and then returned them to the students for further input before incorporating them into the STAND protocol.

While the current study doesn’t explore how to keep students engaged once they’re in treatment, Kodish says she believes this initial “uptake” phase of the process is still vitally important. “If you don't get people's foot in the door, then sustainment doesn't even matter,” she says.

Personally, Kodish hopes as many students as possible at least take the online screening offered by the program. “They’re getting really valuable information,” says Kodish. “Even if they have mild symptoms or no symptoms, they're getting some information about their mental health status that they might not otherwise have.”

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about psychology and neuroscience? Show your support.

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Assistant Professor Tamar Kodish is leveraging modern technology to break down barriers to mental health resources at community colleges.

Traditional

White

Top photo: Eugene Chystiakov/Unsplash

Boulder Builds Peace event emphasizes that peace is possible

Rachel Sauer — Tue, 15 Sep 2026 23:37:17 +0000

Boulder Builds Peace event emphasizes that peace is possible Rachel Sauer Tue, 09/15/2026 - 17:37

Keynote speech and panel discussion sponsored by the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Peace, Conflict and Security Program and Boulder Rotary Club will be Thursday in the CASE auditorium

Tonni Ann Brodber, head of the Secretariat of the United Nations Women’s Peace and Humanitarian Fund (WPHF), will be the keynote speaker Thursday at Boulder Builds Peace, a community event focused on contemporary peace building and conflict resolution.

The event, whose theme is “Peace Is Possible,” is a partnership between �鶹��Ѱ�� Peace, Conflict and Security Program (PACS) and the Boulder Rotary Club. It will feature Brodber’s keynote address as well as a panel discussion with Sarah Sokhey, a �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder associate professor of political science who will focus on citizen engagement and peacebuilding; Bernard Amadei, a �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder distinguished professor emeritus of civil, environmental and architectural engineering who will discuss technical approaches and reconstruction; and Gaea Logan with the International Center for Mental Health and Human Rights, who will discuss mental health infrastructure and peacebuilding.

Faculty, staff, students and community members are invited to attend Boulder Builds Peace, which will begin at 5 p.m. Thursday in the Center for Academic Success and Engagement (CASE) auditorium on the 4^th floor.

“For students who are thinking about careers in diplomacy and international relations, security related topics or just peace building and activism broadly, this is a really great opportunity to hear from a keynote speaker and a group of panelists who do this work professionally,” says Michael English, associate teaching professor and PACS director. “I think it will help students to imagine what those careers look like, and there will be plenty of opportunity to ask questions.

“I do think there is a lot of uncertainty as to what the future of diplomacy looks like, so this is an opportunity hear from people who can share what those uncertainties mean.”

Brodber brings deep experience in advancing gender equality, resource mobilization and working alongside civil society around the world, including in Haiti, South Africa and Fiji. She previously served as representative of the UN Women Multicounty Office in the Caribbean and as team leader for the Advancing Gender Justice in the Pacific program with the UN Women Fiji Multicounty Office, among other international roles.

This is the third year that PACS has partnered with the Boulder Rotary Club to host Boulder Builds Peace. “What’s nice about the entire peace initiative that the Boulder Rotary Club is doing as a whole is that it focuses on talking about peace from the bottom up,” English says. “It’s thinking about the individual and building inner peace and then scaling up. Our event is very much focusing on what peace looks like internationally, but this is very much the time to be engaging with these issues and bringing people to them in whatever capacity they’re able.”

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about peace studies? Show your support.

Keynote speech and panel discussion sponsored by the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder Peace, Conflict and Security Program and Boulder Rotary Club will be Thursday in the CASE auditorium.

Traditional

White

Visualizing the brain with 3D-printed models

Rachel Sauer — Tue, 15 Sep 2026 15:59:07 +0000

Visualizing the brain with 3D-printed models Rachel Sauer Tue, 09/15/2026 - 09:59

Blake Puscher

3D-printed model brains are more accessible and ethical than conventional alternatives, says �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder researcher Jennifer Stratford

When studying anatomy, students often use models, which recreate the structure of an organ or other part of the body in a form that is easy to study.

Although donor bodies are generally considered the gold standard in higher education because they are the only resource that allows students to directly study real anatomy, the number of donor bodies is limited, making them difficult to access, especially in low- and middle-income countries.

Models are somewhat more accessible, but if they are anatomically accurate, similar challenges apply, because they must be based on real donor anatomy to provide educational value. Accurate models are also expensive. However, if educators could 3D print their own models, cost would be less of a barrier, says Jennifer Stratford, a �鶹��Ѱ�� teaching professor of psychology and neuroscience.

Jennifer Stratford is a �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder teaching professor of psychology and neuroscience.

In a recent analysis conducted with colleagues in the �鶹��Ѱ��Anschutz Modern Human Anatomy Program as well as other institutions, Stratford details the learning benefits of 3D printing brain models.

Why brain models?

Neuroanatomy, or the anatomy of the brain and other parts of the nervous system, is a challenging yet important area of study, according to Stratford. Clinical specialties like neurology, psychiatry, anesthesiology, radiology, physiotherapy and more rely in part on knowledge of the brain to correctly diagnose and treat patients. However, Stratford explains, “the human brain is much more difficult to understand than other organs.

“If I showed you a model heart, you could make some educated guesses about how the heart works,” she continues. On the other hand, “if I give you a model of a brain, and I asked you how you think it works just by looking at it, it is almost impossible to guess. That makes learning neuroanatomy tricky,” Stratford adds, and it makes resources that can help students learn particularly valuable.

“I think a lot of people do not realize all the effort, expense and ethical considerations that go into a human brain model,” Stratford says. “It can cost hundreds—if not thousands—of dollars to buy that model from a company.” Additionally, “a lot of original brain models were created without asking for permission,” whether from cadavers that a lab had access to or from bodies that were donated without specific consent to make models based on the brain.

While brain models are more accessible than donor brains, they can still be difficult to obtain, especially in large enough numbers for a whole class of students. 3D printing addresses this by giving educators the option to produce anatomical models themselves at a reduced cost, either using brain scans they take themselves or data from open-access repositories like the �鶹��Ѱ��Modern Human Anatomy Hub, which was created by the research team behind the paper. Putting scan data online comes with additional ethical considerations, but the authors provide ways of managing these, such as data anonymization, and online resources make it possible for people all over the world to create their own models.

“What 3D models help us do is to give students, other educators and the public the opportunity to hold some of these specimens in their hands,” Stratford says.

Collecting and processing data

Stratford and her co-authors describe a five-step process that educators can follow to create and use a 3D model, beginning with selecting or acquiring a model of the brain. These models are ready to use, but if an educator wants a custom model, it can be created from patient data or a physical, donated specimen.

A revised Bloom's taxonomy applied to 3D prints of neuroanatomy, explaining learning objectives at each step of the taxonomy. (Infographic courtesy the paper authors)

Patient data includes CT and MRI scans of the brain or other nervous-system structures. A 3D object can be extracted from this data using a process called segmentation.

“All the patient data, at least that we use, is digitally created with a computer, but it does not have all the brain structures picked out,” Stratford says. “It is not very clean, so one of the goals of extraction is to clean up the 3D rendering of the brain, both making it more crisp, but also highlighting different areas.”

This process also can be described as “removing artifacts.” In this context, artifacts are errors introduced by the way information is captured, such as a lens flare in a photograph.

Additionally, the different regions of the brain are not easily distinguishable from raw data, so highlighting some of them can make the final product a better teaching tool. According to Stratford, while some programs can segment data automatically, they are still new and error prone, so most people currently do segmentation by hand, and it can be one of the more labor-intensive parts of the rendering process.

Physical specimens can also be turned into 3D models using scanning technology, including commercial 3D scanners or even digital cameras or smartphones. Scanners make models by measuring the distance between the scanner and the surface of the object, while cameras algorithmically combine a series of photos in a process called photogrammetry. Scanning also introduces some artifacts, so digital editing is necessary either way, and it is considered the second step in the process.

Thirdly, Stratford and her co-authors recommend licensing the model with a Creative Commons license and making it open access online. Creative Commons is a nonprofit organization that has developed free copyright licenses designed to help content owners reserve some rights while waiving others. In this case, a Creative Commons license would allow the owner or owners to retain control over how their work is used while making it free to access. According to open access principles, research literature and especially medical resources should be free so that healthcare providers are not prevented from taking advantage of potentially vital information by paywalls or other such barriers.

An example of 3D brain prints by printing level. (Infographic courtesy of the paper authors)

Printing and using models

The fourth step is to actually 3D print the model. This requires converting data collected in the first step into instructions the printer can use, which is done by software applications called “slicers,” referencing how most 3D printers create physical objects by laying down material in layers or “slices” of the object.

“That’s what we do in 3D printing in general,” Stratford says, “not just for brains. It is like you are printing multiple sheets every time, and each sheet is made of little bumps in different places, and then you push those together to make a 3D rendering.”

This step can vary significantly in terms of cost and complexity depending on the model of printer and type of materials used. To reflect this, Stratford and her colleagues split the printing process into three difficulty levels ranging from beginner to advanced. According to Stratford, while the beginner level is cheapest and requires only a basic 3D printer, it limits the product to a single color.

“They are really cheap and easy to make, so those are the type I typically use when I do outreach. If somebody drops something, I am not worried if they get damaged, and I am not looking for a ton of detail there.

“From there, you can get more sophisticated. Different 3D printer models that are more expensive can print, for instance, in two colors,” she continues, allowing different parts of the brain to be color-coded. “For instance, you could highlight what is called the spinothalamic tract. That is one of the classic pathways in the brain, but anatomically, it is hard to pick out on its own.”

Multiple colors help with this by creating contrast. The most expensive 3D printers allow for the use of more than two colors.

“One of the things we used to 3D print” at Anschutz, Stratford says, “was taste buds from your tongue. In your taste buds, there are lots of different cell types, and so we could make each cell type a different color and then have that printed in the 3D model. It was really cool to see how that looked.”

Besides different colors, printers can use different filaments (the materials the models are made from), some of which are easier to work with than others. A beginner print may use bioplastic (PLA) filament, which is less expensive and does not have a strong odor, but models made from PLA can be brittle. Advanced printing may involve multiple materials or higher-quality materials like resin. However, both require more expensive printers, and liquid resin releases toxic fumes, so personal protective equipment is needed when working with it.

Finally, once the model has been printed, it can be used for education.

“One of the things they are really useful for,” Stratford explains, “is when you want to teach the overall structure of the brain. That is called gross neuroanatomy. Being able to give individual groups of students their own models can be helpful. Because traditional models are so expensive, most classrooms cannot afford to have more than maybe two or three.”

Because 3D-printed models are cheaper, the ratio of models to students can be better. “For instance, in my class of about 45, we had 15 models to work with, so even though people had to triple up, it is much better than having only one or two models for people to look through.

“Another aspect is, you are generating models based on real brains, whereas if you buy an anatomical model from a company, that is more like a cartoon of the brain. So, what is nice is that you can show a student what your brain actually looks like. Students really do identify with that. I will ask students, ‘What is the biggest thing that sticks out in your mind from this semester?’ And many of them will say it is the 3D models, because it seems so personal.”

For example, models can show what different neurological diseases and types of brain damage look like as well as how they differ from each other.

“It addresses so many different needs. It is better from a teaching perspective, the ethics are better compared to past options, and it is just more widely available,” Stratford says. “Growing up and as a young person, I did not have a lot of access to these things, just because they were so expensive. So, I am really excited about the opportunities this provides to people.”

James P. Lister, Andrew Cale, Zach D. Stetter, Jamie E. Cronin, Steven R. Summers, Paul G. McMenamin and Maureen E. Stabio are co-authors of this paper.

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about psychology and neuroscience? Show your support.

3D-printed model brains are more accessible and ethical than conventional alternatives, says �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder researcher Jennifer Stratford.

Traditional

White

For �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder alumni, art is a family matter

Rachel Sauer — Fri, 11 Sep 2026 17:42:30 +0000

For �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder alumni, art is a family matter Rachel Sauer Fri, 09/11/2026 - 11:42

Rachel Sauer

In recent exhibits, renowned Colorado artists Tony Ortega and Daniel Salazar explore themes of Chicano experience, historical erasure, memory, mythology and the bonds of family

Tony Ortega and Daniel Salazar did not know each other growing up in Denver. They did not cross paths at the �鶹��Ѱ��, even though many steps on those paths were similar.

They finally met through Denver’s Chicano Humanities and Arts Council, when the organization invited famed Mexican sculptor Francisco Zúñiga to Denver and Salazar and his wife, Maruca, a �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder MFA alumna, hosted a reception.

Maruca Salazar (left) and Daniel Salazar (right) in a Museo de las Americas gallery with their recently ended exhibit “Accidentally on Purpose – Pasó lo que tenía que pasar” celebrating 50 years of their activism and art. Maruca is a former director of Museo de las Americas. (Photo: Tony Ortega)

“That was really an era that brought artists together,” Salazar says. “And that was really also part of what we were experiencing and practicing at that time, because we were very much directed toward organizing and creating work and creating community, something that continued from our experiences at �鶹��Ѱ��of organizing, working together, creating opportunities to create work and exhibit work and just making that part of our lifestyle.”

So, Ortega and Salazar met, and in that meeting there was recognition—of the inspiration to create, of activism and organizing, of El Movimiento, of art informed and inspired by history and heritage, culture and identity and, perhaps most especially, family.

Always family—in the making of art, in its display, in bonds of both birth and choice that have woven a creative tapestry across decades and been given form in the recently completed exhibit “Accidentally on Purpose – Pasó lo que tenía que pasar” at Museo de las Americas in Denver, celebrating 50 years of Daniel and Maruca Salazar’s activism and art; and in “Tres Voces, Un Corazón,” currently showing at the Boulder Museum of Contemporary Art.

“Tres Voces, Un Corazón” highlights the work of Ortega, his wife, Sylvia Montero, and their son, Cipriano Ortega. The exhibit, guest curated by Maruca Salazar, in part explores what is passed between generations and how even in families, identity does not have to mean identical.

And in both exhibits, themes of Chicano experience, Indigenous identity, historical erasure, memory, mythology, community and creating home—themes that in many ways began to find form for Salazar and Ortega as young activists and artists at �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder.

The path to �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder

Before they began to flourish as artists and activists in the Chicano cultural renaissance that grew in the 1970s, however, Salazar and Ortega were two kids growing up in Denver—six years apart in age but experiencing similar trajectories.

Let the muse move you

Cipriano Ortega and his band Los Lo Los will perform at the Boulder Museum of Contemporary Art at 6 p.m. Saturday.

Learn More

Salazar was born in Denver in 1952 and Ortega moved to the city as a young child from Pecos, New Mexico, and both were Baby Boomers who navigated their Mexican heritage as American boys who loved to run around and play sports and get up to things in neighborhoods where many of the adults acted as auxiliary parents.

Salazar was in one of the first graduating classes from John F. Kennedy High School and studied at Pamona College in California before losing his financial aid and dropping out to pursue work as a real estate photographer. However, “my brother five years older than I was had attended CU, and I used to go and visit him and marvel at what college life was like there. I was very intrigued by the Boulder scene in those days.”

Ortega, coming up six years later, remembers touring the �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder campus as a senior at East High School—inspired, in part, by a fascination with the football team’s lauded running back Bobby Anderson.

Even though Salazar and Ortega studied at �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder several years apart, they were there in the heady 1970s, when Chicano activism was gaining momentum and intensity on campuses across the United States. Both were involved with United Mexican American Students (UMAS) and the El Diario de la Gente student newspaper, and Salazar was an undergraduate student during the time of Los Seis de Boulder—when, over the course of 48 hours in May 1974, two car bombs killed six people, five of whom were �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder students or alumni, who were involved in El Movimiento Chicano social justice movement.

Cipriano Ortega (left), Tony Ortega (center) and Sylvia Montero (right) at their “Tres Voces, Un Corazón” exhibit showing through Sunday at the Boulder Museum of Contemporary Art. (Photo: Boulder Museum of Contemporary Art)

Not long after the tragedies of those days, Salazar traveled to Xalapa, the capital of Mexico’s Veracruz state, to study. It was a strange time to be away from Boulder, Salazar recalls.

“The aftermath of Los Seis and other events made things kind of tense, kind of heightened,” he says. “It was a period of a lot of political protest and activity, a lot of activism and organizing, so it was an interesting time to step away from what was happening in Boulder.”

Several years later, Ortega also studied in Xalapa, a natural progression of his Latin American studies and, in a way, to “see how Mexican I was,” Ortega recalls. “I think both Daniel and I ended up finding out how American we were.”

While studying Spanish, anthropology, history and other subjects, both lived with local families and “really integrated into Mexican society,” Ortega says, experiences that have informed his and Salazar’s artwork in various ways—from occasional experiences of feeling very Mexican in the United States to not feeling Mexican enough in Mexico, to navigating and claiming their Mexican heritage while exploring their Chicano identities. And in Salazar’s case, the time in Xalapa included meeting Maruca, the woman who became his wife.

‘Let the muse move you’

After graduating �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder—Salazar in communications and Ortega in business Spanish and Latin American studies—both Salazar and Ortega pursued creative careers. Salazar worked in photography, journalism and filmmaking and Ortega, who earned an associate degree in fine art from the Rocky Mountain College of Art and Design in 1982 and his MFA from �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder in 1995, became a professor of fine art at Regis University.

And they both married artists and grew their artistic reputations in Denver’s vibrant arts community, so it’s only natural that art has been a language and lineage of family.

As organizers and activists, their art explores themes including immigration, gender roles, historical erasure and identity. And it has never shied away from topics that aren’t easy to face. “Accidentally on Purpose – Pasó lo que tenía que pasar” featured Salazar’s work Grand Poobah and Office Fairy Cut Through Red Tape, a digital photograph mural featuring a 1941 photograph of federal office workers to whom Salazar added a crown and fairy wings.

The piece was controversial enough when it was hung in Denver’s Wellington E. Webb Municipal Office Building that even The Denver Post editorialized against it on behalf of aggrieved government employees.

“Government employees didn’t like it very much,” Salazar recalls, “but I think most people’s experiences are with the red tape and feeling like they can’t do anything about it.”

“It’s meant as satire,” Maruca Salazar says.

And “Tres Voces, Un Corazón” includes Ortega’s work El Grito de Guadalupe, which portrays Our Lady of Guadalupe in a pose reminiscent of Edvard Munch’s The Scream. Beneath her on the floor is a sculpture of baby Jesus in a cage.

“To be meaningful, art should represent and reflect the time we’re in,” Ortega explains, adding that art also is a medium for exploring and understanding identity.

“Tres Voces, Un Corazón” also includes Montero’s series “Gaan”—collages showing different aspects of southwest Native dance and reflecting both her Apache heritage and her training with the Martha Graham Dance Company.

Tony Ortega notes that while each of the three artists in the family work on different levels of their Denver home, and while each has a strong individual artistic identity, the threads of family are woven throughout “Tres Voces, Un Corazón.”

In Cipriano Ortega’s installation Lo Lo House, in which he and his band Los Lo Los will perform at 6 p.m. Saturday, one of his poems scrolls down a wall: “To build a house, to build a home. To build a house. To build a home. Let the muse move you.”

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about art and art history? Show your support.

Maruca Salazar and Daniel Salazar, American Me, 2000, mixed-media installation (folkloric dresses and photography)

Tony Ortega, El Vez, 2019, etching and watercolor

Daniel Salazar (left) and Maruca Salazar (center) with Daniel's work Grand Poobah and Office Fairy Cut Through Red Tape.

Sylvia Montero, They Came by Ships, monotype and collage

Daniel Salazar, Westside Dreams (National Chicano Dance Theater), 1979, print on fabric

(Left to right) Tony Ortega, Anton, 2021, digital photo on papel amate; Tony Ortega, Cipriano, 2024, digital photo on papel amate; Tony Ortega, Cheyenne, 2021, digital photo on papel amate

In recent exhibits, renowned Colorado artists Tony Ortega and Daniel Salazar explore themes of Chicano experience, historical erasure, memory, mythology and the bonds of family.

Traditional

White

Top image: The pieces (left to right) Anton, Cipriano and Cheynne by Tony Ortega

25 years after 9/11: the persistence of stereotypes, the willingness to build understanding

Rachel Sauer — Thu, 10 Sep 2026 19:42:01 +0000

25 years after 9/11: the persistence of stereotypes, the willingness to build understanding Rachel Sauer Thu, 09/10/2026 - 13:42

Bradley Worrell

In the weeks following 9/11, �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder sociologist Lori Peek was in New York City hearing the stories of Muslim Americans navigating suspicion, hostility and questions of identity and belonging

On the morning of Sept. 11, 2001, as smoke rose from the burning World Trade Center and the United States struggled to comprehend an unprecedented terrorist attack, sociologist Lori Peek found herself asking a different question: Who would be hurt next?

At the time, Peek was a doctoral student at the �鶹��Ѱ��’s Natural Hazards Center, where she studied disasters and how they affect vulnerable communities. As the nation focused on the destruction of the World Trade Center and the thousands of lives lost, Peek recognized another crisis was unfolding at the same time: anti-Muslim sentiment was quickly spreading across the country.

For Peek, this issue was not simply academic. While pursuing her master’s degree, she became close friends with an Afghan American woman whose family arrived in the United States as refugees. As public mistrust and anger quickly intensified, Peek worried about her friend and others being viewed through the lens of fear and blame.

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder researcher Lori Peek, director of the Natural Hazards Center, interviewed Muslims in New York City about anti-Muslim backlash after 9/11.

When her academic advisor informed her that she would be traveling to New York City to study the disaster, Peek already knew the topic she wanted to pursue. Rather than document the attack itself, she set out to record how Muslim Americans, particularly young, second-generation Muslims, were experiencing the nation’s response.

Those interviews eventually formed the foundation for her first book, Behind the Backlash: Muslim Americans After 9/11. Peek says those interviews preserved the voices of people navigating anger, discrimination and uncertainty while insisting that the actions of a few religious extremists did not define their faith, their identities or their place in America.

As the 25th anniversary of 9/11 approaches Friday, Colorado Arts and Sciences Magazine spoke with Peek about what she learned in speaking with Muslim Americans immediately after the terrorist attacks and why she believes those lessons remain important today. The following interview was condensed and lightly edited for style.

Question: How did your research on the experiences of Muslim Americans following 9/11 come together?

Peek: Back in 2001, I was a PhD student in sociology, and I was working at the Natural Hazards Center here at �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder. Like the graduate students before me, I assumed I’d write a dissertation on natural hazards or disasters. That was one of the key expectations of being a research assistant here at the Center.

Then 9/11 happened. I came in that morning and my advisor, who was the director of the Natural Hazards Center at the time, looked at me and said, ‘I hope you know what you are going to do, because you’re going to New York City.’

As a sociologist, I was very interested in socially marginalized populations in disasters. That’s still my area of expertise. Even in that disaster, my immediate thought was, ‘Who is going to be hurt? What are the effects going to be for those who are already being blamed?’

Did 9/11 fundamentally reinvent U.S. policy in the Middle East? No, says �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder historian John M. Willis, a scholar of the modern Middle East. In fact, "promoting democracy or human rights has never been a priority for the U.S. in the Middle East," he says.

Learn more

I was also influenced by my personal connections. When I was a master’s student, I had become close friends with an Afghan American woman, who wore the full head covering, whose family had come to America as refugees.

When 9/11 happened, and I had to figure out what to study, I brought together my scholarly commitment to understanding social inequality and vulnerability in disasters along with my personal care for people in the Muslim community.

Question: Did you experience difficulties in attempting to speak with Muslim Americans in the environment of distrust and suspicion following 9/11?

Peek: It took a lot of what we call ‘shoe leather sociology.’ It meant making calls, sending emails and traveling around and meeting people once I got to New York City. There were practical considerations about how to find people willing to talk. Muslim student associations were a great way to gain access to groups of young, second-generation Muslim Americans, and then they helped me to meet other people.

Interviews Lori Peek conducted very soon after 9/11 built the foundation for her book Behind the Backlash: Muslim Americans after 9/11.

As a non-Muslim, people are often curious about how I was received. I think there were a lot of reasons people were willing to speak with me. I was only 26 years old at the time, and so I was a similar age as my participants. We also shared the same status as students or recent graduates in the case of a few.

Once I got on the ground and started talking to people, they often said, ‘It’s a good thing you’re talking to me, because there’s no way my parents or grandparents would have ever talked to you.’ They were too scared.

In other instances, interviewees would tell me, ‘It helps that you’re not Muslim because we’re trying to explain that we’re not all terrorists, but when that message comes from us, people may dismiss it.’ If someone outside of the faith is willing to take the time to listen, that matters.

Question: What did Muslim Americans share with you about experiencing backlash after 9/11? Also, did they feel like they had experienced discrimination before 9/11?

Peek: Like many members of religious or ethnic minority communities, participants often had stories from before 9/11 about insensitive comments, misunderstandings or stereotypes. It wasn’t as though life had been completely free of those experiences. But they generally described those earlier incidents as ignorance or unfamiliarity with the Islamic faith.

After 9/11, the situation felt completely different. There was fear from the public, often stoked by the media, regarding people who were perceived to share the identity of those responsible for the attacks. … Some participants who had grown up in diverse communities and rarely felt singled out suddenly found themselves wondering whether they were being watched, targeted or even physically endangered. Those fears were quantitatively and qualitatively different from anything they had experienced before.

Question: Did young Muslim Americans’ experiences differ depending upon gender, race, ethnicity or other factors?

Peek: All of those things mattered. None of us have only one identity. At any given moment, multiple identities operate together. In my study, Muslim women often expressed greater fear of physical violence because they felt more vulnerable and were also more visible due to their headscarves.

In addition to gender, race, ethnicity and immigration history also mattered. For example, I interviewed some white converts to Islam who felt that being white offered certain protections, but those protections seemed to disappear once they put on a headscarf because the clothing is such a symbolic marker of the faith.

All of those identity characteristics matter, but after 9/11, there was also a strong unifying effect around the faith itself. In sociology, we talk about identity salience, the idea that identity under the greatest threat becomes the most important one. After 9/11, being Muslim became a highly stigmatized identity—and that identity was pushed to the forefront of many young Muslims’ lives.

Before 9/11, many participants told me they felt they could be both Muslim and American without contradiction. Afterward, some felt society was forcing them to choose. One participant told me, ‘If I’m going to have to choose, I’m going to choose to be Muslim.’ That shift was very real.

Question: Did the backlash after 9/11 change the ways in which young Muslim Americans thought about being American?

Peek: Absolutely. I interviewed 140 people for the study, and I’ve remained in contact with some of them over the years. The effects were profound.

For some, it changed their educational paths and careers. People switched majors, pursued international relations, entered public service or sought careers where they felt they could bridge cultures and make a difference.

It also influenced how they thought about belonging and integration. Historically, immigrants tend to assimilate more easily when they are not stigmatized. When communities remain under suspicion or attack, that process changes.

I observed that some participants became more committed to living in communities where they felt safe speaking their heritage languages or marrying within their faith. I didn’t study those choices systematically, but they were themes that emerged in people’s stories.

Even now, a generation later, younger Muslim Americans who read Behind the Backlash tell me the experiences still resonate. They may not have lived through 9/11, but they recognize some of the same dynamics.

"Before 9/11, many participants told me they felt they could be both Muslim and American without contradiction," says Lori Peek. "Afterward, some felt society was forcing them to choose." (Photo: Islamic Center of Murfreesboro, Tennessee)

Question: It sounds like, for at least some of the people you spoke with, they deepened their connection with their Muslim identity after 9/11?

Peek: Yes, absolutely. In my work, I describe three stages of identity development. First is an ascribed identity, the identity you are born into. Second is chosen or learned identity, where a person actively embraces and practices their faith. Then, after 9/11, many participants entered what I called the identity of crisis.

They didn’t suddenly become Muslim because of 9/11. They were already Muslim. But after the attacks, that identity became the most important and unavoidable part of how they experienced the world.

As a result, many increased their involvement with Muslim student associations, attended mosque more regularly when they felt safe doing so and sought out connections with other Muslims who understood what they were going through.

Understandably, during that time of upheaval they wanted community, support, information and solidarity. They also wanted to serve as a counterpoint to the stigmatizing narratives surrounding Islam and Muslims in the moment.

Question: Based upon what your extensive conversations with Muslim Americans after 9/11, what are a few of the top things you think are worth sharing?

Peek: First, the consequences of 9/11 have obviously been so enduring for so many people. The effects reach from geopolitics all the way down to individual lives. There is a reason we’re still talking about it decades later, and it is important to think about the many and varied consequences for so many people.

Second, I hope people understand the importance of listening to and learning from others. Many of the stereotypes participants faced didn’t begin with 9/11, but the attacks intensified them.

One thing that stood out to me was often Muslim women said, ‘Nobody is forcing me to wear this (the hijab). In fact, concerned family members immediately after 9/11 were telling me to take it off and I chose not to.’ Yet, even when they explained that repeatedly, they felt some stereotypes remained deeply embedded in public consciousness.

At the same time, I was struck by the grace many participants showed. They often felt that people were acting out of fear or misunderstanding rather than pure hatred. They wanted to educate, engage and correct misconceptions.

The persistence of stereotypes is also an important lesson, but so is the persistence of people’s willingness to build understanding despite them.

My study was just one within a much larger body of scholarship about 9/11, but I think the broader question it raises remains important: What happens when immigrant communities or minority communities come under suspicion or attack?

What interests me is not just the theory, but the lived experience. How are people affected? How do they respond? What does it mean for their daily lives?

The United States is an extraordinarily diverse country, and one of the enduring questions we continue to face is how hundreds of millions of people from different backgrounds can live together, understand one another and build a shared future? Those questions remain as important today as they were when I began this research.

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about sociology? Show your support.

Traditional

White

Top image: Pexels

�鶹��Ѱ��historian offers view on how 9/11 changed the Middle East

Brad Worrell — Wed, 09 Sep 2026 17:28:57 +0000

�鶹��Ѱ��historian offers view on how 9/11 changed the Middle East Brad Worrell Wed, 09/09/2026 - 11:28

Bradley Worrell

Twenty-five years after the terrorist attacks, Middle East expert John M. Willis says 9/11 did not fundamentally reinvent U.S. policy in the region but it did remove political constraints and accelerate changes

If there is one misconception about the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks that �鶹��Ѱ�� historian John M. Willis would like to challenge, it is the idea that those attacks fundamentally reinvented U.S. policy in the Middle East.

Willis, whose research focus is on the modern Middle East, was living in Yemen on a Fullbright fellowship when the 9/11 attacks occurred. He recalls attending a town hall at the U.S. embassy a few days later, where he asked the ambassador if the U.S. would present its evidence for who it saw as being responsible for the attacks and if it would seek to build international community support for any actions it would take. He says the ambassador responded bluntly that the U.S. would not wait to respond.

That idea, as later articulated in more detail by the George W. Bush administration, was that the U.S. could react unilaterally—and preemptively—against any perceived threats, Willis says. Rather than following the established rules-based international order, Bush’s declaration put forth the idea “that the U.S. presented itself as above or beyond international laws,” he adds.

John M. Willis is a �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder history professor whose expertise is in the Middle East.

Officially, that represented a new policy for the U.S., but Willis says conservative think tanks had been laying the groundwork for such a change for at least two decades prior to the terrorist attacks.

‘Global War on Terror’

The first phase of the American response to the 9/11 attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City and Pentagon in Washington, D.C., focused on Afghanistan, where al-Qaeda had established its base under Taliban protection.

For many Americans, the invasion of Afghanistan appeared to have a clear objective: dismantle the organization responsible for the attacks and prevent future acts of terrorism. But Willis argues that the U.S. government’s response quickly expanded into something much broader.

He says the idea of a “Global War on Terror” evolved beyond al-Qaeda and became a framework for understanding a wide range of international challenges. Terrorism, he explains, became the central lens through which policymakers viewed the Middle East.

Willis says that broader approach helped pave the way for the 2003 invasion of Iraq—even though there was no evidence linking al-Qaeda and the Arab dictatorship.

Long before the 9/11 attacks, Willis says influential neo-conservatives associated with the Project for a New American Century had been advocating for a more muscular U.S. foreign policy, particularly in the Middle East. After the first Gulf War, many prominent neo-cons argued that defeating Saddam Hussein’s regime would create a “massive domino effect in the Middle East that would lead to the emergence of liberal democracy, free market capitalism and so on,” Willis says.

He adds that neo-con ambitions did not end with Iraq, noting that in the months following 9/11 President Bush described America as being in conflict with an “Axis of Evil” that included Iran.

In the days following 9/11, Willis says using language like Axis of Evil and Global War on Terror made it nearly impossible for Americans to challenge the direction in which the country was headed.

How

How have anti-Muslim backlash and stereotypes affected Muslim Americans in the 25 years since 9/11? �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder researcher Lori Peek asks how a nation of hundreds of millions of people from different backgrounds can live together, understand one another and build a shared future.

Learn more

“If you think back to that period, it was really difficult to speak against this idea of the Global War on Terror. It was a really constrained rhetorical and political environment if you were opposed to U.S. military intervention,” he says.

Unintended rise of Iran

Perhaps one of the great ironies of the post-9/11 era, Willis says, is that efforts intended to strengthen American influence in the Middle East by overthrowing the Iraqi government instead helped Iran expand its power in the region.

The removal of Saddam Hussein, a Sunni Muslim, eliminated one of the most important rivals of Iran, a Shia-majority country. In the political vacuum that followed, Shiite parties and movements—many of which had longstanding ties with Iran—gained prominence in Iraq, Willis says.

“By around 2003, when we have the first beginning of a democratic process in Iraq following the U.S. invasion, it was clear to every policy specialist that any new government would be dominated by Shiite political parties,” he says. Unfortunately for the United States, its leaders weren’t listening to what those policy specialists had to say at the time, he adds.

This development, Willis argues, illustrates the difficulty of predicting how major interventions will reshape regional politics.

Meanwhile, for Sunni-led Gulf monarchies such as Saudi Arabia, Iran’s strengthened position was a source of deep concern.

“The 1979 (Iranian) revolution was a popular revolution that unseated a monarch supported by the U.S.,” Willis says. “And in the 1980s, there were a number of local movements within the Gulf regimes’ own Shiite populations inspired by Iran, including Saudi Arabia and Bahrain. For the longest time, Gulf states had seen Iran as an exporter of revolution, so the rise of the Shiite-led government in Iraq made that threat palpable.”

Two key developments

Meanwhile, the U.S. was not the only government taking action in the Middle East following 9/11 in the name of combating terrorism. Willis says many Arab states quickly recognized that by presenting domestic opposition groups as terrorist threats they could justify crackdowns while avoiding international criticism.

“Effectively, it gave the green light to massive waves of repression across the region,” he says. “Gulf states could not only get U.S. support, but also military and financial aid to combat terrorism when it was, in effect, combating domestic enemies. So, it effectively worked against any form of democratic reform or democratic culture.”

The result, Willis contends, was the strengthening of authoritarian governments across the region.

Beyond the optics of standing with Arab governments pledging to fight terrorism, Willis says the U.S. was in no position to criticize those countries because it directly benefited from those relationships. Specifically, some Arab governments like Jordan helped the U.S. infiltrate al-Qaeda while others hosted CIA-operated “black sites” where security services sought to extract intelligence from al-Qaeda prisoners in ways that would have been illegal in the U.S.

Willis says one of the other key developments that indirectly resulted from 9/11 was that, with Iran’s increased influence in the region following the overthrow of Saddam Hussein in Iraq, the existing relationship between Israel and the Gulf countries was effectively brought out into the open.

“I think the U.S. relationship has stayed roughly the same with the Gulf states, with minor exceptions, but I think it did help cement the relationship with Israel and the Gulf states,” he says.

The ‘Arab Spring’ challenge

If the 2003 Iraq War revealed the unintended consequences of intervention, Willis says the ‘Arab Spring’ that gained momentum in 2011 exposed the limitations of a regional order built primarily on security partnerships.

An Arab Spring protest in Egypt. The movement exposed the limitations of a regional order built primarily on security partnerships, says �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder scholar John M. Willis. (Photo: MidoSemsem/Shutterstock)

He argues that many U.S. leaders underestimated popular frustration throughout the Middle East. That’s because those leaders, Republicans and Democrats alike, tend to equate a country’s leadership with its citizens, when none of the authoritarian governments in power are popular with their citizenry, he says.

In countries such as Tunisia and Egypt, mass movements demanded political reform, greater accountability and expanded economic opportunities. Protesters demonstrated that public opinion remained a powerful force despite oppression, Willis says.

He says the Obama administration had an opportunity to support the 2011 Egyptian revolution that supplanted Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, a historic ally of the U.S. and Israel, but opted not to. Instead, it tacitly endorsed the military coup in 2013 that removed the Muslim Brotherhood from power.

For Willis, the Arab Spring revealed a fundamental contradiction in U.S. policy.

“Promoting democracy or human rights has never been a priority for the U.S. in the Middle East. It simply hasn’t,” he says bluntly. “If we go to the post-World War II period, when we really see the emergence of the U.S. role in the Middle East, it was about Cold War alliances and concerns; it was the domination of energy resources and military alliances meant to marginalize the allies of the Soviet Union in the region. Post-1967, it was about the strong alliance with Israel more than anything. So, we really don’t see a concerted effort to promote democracy or human rights.”

Willis says he believes U.S. policymakers still have not learned the lesson that security arrangements with Arab governments could prove fragile when the underlying grievances of those countries’ citizens remain unresolved.

A legacy still unfolding

More than two decades after 9/11, Willis believes the consequences of America’s actions after the terrorist attacks continue to shape the Middle East.

He is not confident that the U.S. has learned any lessons from its past military intervention in the region based on the Trump administration’s decision earlier this year to join Israel in launching a sneak attack on Iran, seeking to overthrow the Islamic republic’s government by eliminating its top leadership.

Willis says such an action reflects a mindset that has persisted since 9/11: that American military power alone can successfully manage the Middle East’s most difficult challenges. He warns that, historically, such confidence has often produced outcomes very different from those that policymakers originally intended.

Meanwhile, the idea of a Global War on Terror has not gone away—and the repercussions of that exist far beyond the Middle East, according to Willis.

“I think one thing we have not fully contended with here is we’re seeing the growing surveillance state and much harsher responses to civil disobedience and protest,” he says. “It is something that has grown out of this idea of a Global War on Terror, which becomes existential in a way that a war between countries can’t, because it’s not geographically bounded. Terror can exist everywhere and anywhere. It can exist outside the U.S. and in the most American places in the North American continent. I think that still lives with us in the most unfortunate way.”

Did you enjoy this article? Subscribe to our newsletter. Passionate about history? Show your support.

Twenty-five years after the terrorist attacks, Middle East expert John M. Willis says 9/11 did not fundamentally reinvent policy in the region but did remove political constraints and accelerate changes.

Traditional

White

Top photo: U.S. National Archives

News

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder celebrates topping out of new chemistry and applied mathematics facility

Related Articles

Student meteorology society named local chapter of the year

Related Articles

Rebecca Machen awarded $2 million National Science Foundation grant

Related Articles

Scientists get a clearer picture of phytoplankton sustaining ocean food webs

Related Articles

Students sending a text for help

Related Articles

Boulder Builds Peace event emphasizes that peace is possible

Related Articles

Visualizing the brain with 3D-printed models

Related Articles

For �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder alumni, art is a family matter

Related Articles

25 years after 9/11: the persistence of stereotypes, the willingness to build understanding

Related Articles

�鶹��Ѱ��historian offers view on how 9/11 changed the Middle East

Related Articles

News

�鶹��Ѱ�����Boulder celebrates topping out of new chemistry and applied mathematics facility

Related Articles

Student meteorology society named local chapter of the year

Related Articles

Rebecca Machen awarded $2 million National Science Foundation grant

Related Articles

Scientists get a clearer picture of phytoplankton sustaining ocean food webs

Related Articles

Students sending a text for help

Related Articles

Boulder Builds Peace event emphasizes that peace is possible

Related Articles

Visualizing the brain with 3D-printed models

Related Articles

For �鶹��Ѱ�����Boulder alumni, art is a family matter

Related Articles

25 years after 9/11: the persistence of stereotypes, the willingness to build understanding

Related Articles

�鶹��Ѱ�����historian offers view on how 9/11 changed the Middle East

Related Articles

�鶹��Ѱ��Boulder celebrates topping out of new chemistry and applied mathematics facility

For �鶹��Ѱ��Boulder alumni, art is a family matter

�鶹��Ѱ��historian offers view on how 9/11 changed the Middle East